Between the Testaments: Apocrypha and Josephus

The narrative of the Hebrew Bible concludes with the people of Judah (the Jews), inheritors of God’s covenant with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (Israel), returning from exile to rebuild the city of Jerusalem. With the permission of the Persian government, they reinstitute the ancient laws of their people, and drive out any people that don’t belong among them.

In many churches and Sunday schools, however, there is a significant gap in our understanding as to what happens next (particularly in protestant churches, for reasons we will soon discover). Somehow, we move from a returning band of political prisoners living under Persian governance and writing in Hebrew to a Greek-speaking New Testament. Instead of the tentative steps of re-settlement taken by Ezra and Nehemiah, in the New Testament we find a people with a fully-fledged temple and religious system living under the occupation of the Roman government. Further investigation reveals that hundreds of years have passed between the two parts of Christian scripture. The key to answering this gap in knowledge comes when we consider two groups of writings: (1) a collection of books called the Deuterocanonical Texts or Apocrypha (different names are used in different Bibles), and (2) the writings of a historian named Josephus. Additionally, a third interesting source of knowledge about what happened in this time come from the Dead Sea Scrolls, which were a significant archaeological find of the 20th Century!

Introducing the Deuterocanonical Books

The Deuterocanon is a collection of texts that is still a part of Catholic Bibles today. However, these texts were removed from Protestant copies, and are sometimes placed in the back as ‘the Apocrypha’. The reasons for the removal go back to the 1500s, when reformers like Martin Luther (who founded the Lutheran Church tradition) questioned the roll of the Apocrypha in the scriptures. Some of the key reasons the texts were considered ‘unbiblical’ by the reformers were (a) unlike the Old Testament, the Apocrypha is written in Greek (and was not formally accepted as scripture by the Jewish people either) and (b) unlike the New Testament, the Apocrypha does not deal with the life of Jesus or the early church.

While the Apocrypha was removed from the Bible, it is important to recognise that the reformers still considered it worthwhile. Martin Luther described them as “books which are not regarded as equal to the Holy Scriptures, and yet are profitable and good to read." Luther attached the Apocrypha at the end of his German translation of the Bible. Subsequently, many Bibles have removed it altogether—thus losing the piece of the Jewish story that helps us link the Old Testament and the New together.

Much of the Apocrypha are strange stories and apocalypses, from a time when the Jewish people are envisioning God’s miraculous help in the face of oppression. There are also additions to the book of Daniel, involving further visions and strangeness. For discussing the narrative of the Jewish people, however, the Apocrypha’s most useful sections lie in the book of 1 Maccabees.

Introducing Josephus

In 66 A.D. the Jews, tired of Roman interference in their affairs, attempted to cast the Romans out of the province of Judea, of which Jerusalem was the capital. One of the leaders of this rebellion, a Jewish noble named Josephus, defects to the Romans when he realises his situation is impossible. He becomes a slave and advisor to the General Vespasian. Vespasian later becomes Emperor, and gives Josephus his freedom. Josephus becomes a historian, writing about the war in which he took part, but also about the history of the Jewish people. Josephus has proven invaluable for drawing the links between the events of Maccabees and the beginning of the New Testament.

However, for Josephus to make the most sense to us, we first need to consider the content of 1 Maccabees. To do that, we need to briefly shift our focus from Jerusalem to Greece.

Setting the scene for Maccabees        

The area we now know as Greece was once inhabited by a number of small yet fiercely independent kingdoms, who shared a common culture—those we call ‘the Ancient Greeks’. King Philip of Macedon, followed by his son Alexander, used politics and conquest to unit these kingdoms.

The Greek states had been under threat from the all-conquering Persians (who now govern the Jews in Jerusalem) for a long time. Alexander the Great, having united the Greeks together, decided to reverse the threat and attack the Persians. In a series of stunning victories, Alexander led the Greeks across the known world, conquering the Persian Empire before he was thirty years old. He led his armies south to Egypt, and east through Persia and into Afghanistan and India (the city of Kandahar in Afghanistan was founded by and named after Alexander! Kandahar is just a corruption of his name). These conquests made Alexander seem invincible... but he wasn’t. Alexander died from illness, appendicitis or poisoning at the young age of 32 years old, in 323 BC.  

1 Maccabees

1 Maccabees begins with this Alexander the Great, the famous Macedonian conqueror. The book notes that Alexander had conquered the kings of the earth, and then mentions his death a relatively short time later (a reign of a total twelve years). On his death, Maccabees tells us that his officers ‘all put on crowns after his death, and so did their descendants after them for many years’ (1 Maccabees 1:9 NRS + Apocrypha). In other words, they divided up his empire and began ruling the territories as their own kingdoms. These empires and the culture that they spread has been labelled as the ‘Hellenistic’ culture—marked by Greek customs, religion and social rules (Hellenistic comes from ‘Hellas’, the Greek’s own term for ‘Greece’).

The book focuses particularly on two of these smaller kingdoms. King Ptolemy ruled the territory of Egypt, which is where the Israelites of Jerusalem were located (‘Israelites’ and ‘Jews’ become interchangeable words in this period). To the north (in the area of Syria, Persia and the south of modern Turkey) was the Seleucid Empire. It was ruled by a man named Antiochus Epiphanes. He was an ambitious figure, and in a military campaign against the Ptolemies managed to capture Jerusalem.

Epiphanes was a brutal and insensitive ruler. He plundered the treasures from the temple in Jerusalem. He taxed the people more than they could handle. Finally, he decreed that all people in his Empire should follow Hellenistic customs. He banned practice of Jewish religion, made people work on the Sabbath in violation of the old laws, discouraged circumcision through punishment of death and even sacrificed pigs on the alter in Jerusalem’s temple (something deeply offensive as pigs were declared an ‘unclean’ animal in the law of Moses). Copies of scripture were destroyed. Essentially, everything that made people uniquely Jewish was attacked.

Officials from the Greeks travelled around the region, demanding that the people renounce their religion and offer pagan sacrifices instead. In response to this oppressive existence, we hear about a man named Mattathias, from a family of priests known in other sources (the historian Josephus) as the Hasmoneans. Mattathias refuses the sacrifice and then kills a man who does not. Finally, he gathers his five sons and flees for the hills.

In the meantime, a number of Jewish people also refuse to sacrifice, and gather in a kind of peaceful protest on the Sabbath (a day of no work). The Hellenistic authorities respond in force, massacring the protesters.

Mattathias, his sons and other followers refuse to die in a similar manner, responding with a campaign of vigilante violence. They circumcise any uncircumcised boys in Israel, ‘hunted down the arrogant’ and ‘rescued the law out of the hands of the Gentiles and kings’ (1 Macc 2:46-48). Having begun this rebellion, and approaching old age, Mattathias then passes on leadership of his family to his warrior son ‘Judas Maccabeus’ (Maccabeus was a nickname, which some suggest means ‘hammer’, suggesting ferocity in battle). Mattathias then passes away.

Judas leads the people in a series of battles against the Greek generals, enjoying significant success in victories over the Seleucids. Having driven the Greeks from Jerusalem, Judas (who is, remember, from a priestly family) leads the rededication of the temple, rebuilding and constructing new sacred relics (This cleansing is the origin of the Jewish annual festival of celebration, Hanukah).

A new King, Demetrius, rises to rule over the Seleucids. He renews attacks on the Jewish people, and tries to appoint a Hellenised priest (a Jewish priest who has accepted Greek culture) as High Priest with authority over every Jew. Judas’ army made it impossible to rule, however, and the priest is turned away.

Judas sends diplomats to the Romans, whose territory had been gradually creeping eastward in search of more land and resources. Judas forms a treaty with the Romans for assistance if the Jews were attacked again, likewise promising Jewish assistance if the Romans were attacked. King Demetrius ignores the threat of this new alliance. He attacks again, and Judah is killed in this conflict. Judas’ brothers, Jonathan and Simon, assume responsibility for leading the resistance from this point.

After Jonathan is killed in further conflict with the Greeks, his remaining brother Simon explores a peaceful resolution with Demetrius’ son (the originally named Demetrius II), who has become the new King of the Seleucids. Demetrius recognise Simon’s leadership of the Jews. He grants the region of ‘Judea’ tax-free status in the Selecuid Empire. They were eventually also allow to coin their own money, maintain their own military, and rule Jerusalem as Simon saw fit. This made Judea a semi-independent state. Given this freedom, Simon was able to begin fortifying Jerusalem and its surrounds, before expelling gentiles from neighbouring cities. Simon strengthened alliances of understanding with the Romans, guaranteeing Judea’s place on the ancient world stage. Accordingly, 1 Maccabees 15:41-45 tells us:

The Jews and their priests have resolved that Simon should be their leader and high priest forever, until a trustworthy prophet should arise, and that he should be governor over them and that he should take charge of the sanctuary and appoint officials over its tasks and over the country and the weapons and the strongholds, and that he should take charge of the sanctuary, and that he should be obeyed by all, and that all contracts in the country should be written in his name, and that he should be clothed in purple and wear gold. "None of the people or priests shall be permitted to nullify any of these decisions or to oppose what he says, or to convene an assembly in the country without his permission, or to be clothed in purple or put on a gold buckle. Whoever acts contrary to these decisions or rejects any of them shall be liable to punishment.

In effect, Simon was now both Prince and High Priest of the Jewish people, until a messiah (the ‘trustworthy prophet’, clearly anointed by God) would come to fully restore the ancient boundaries of Israel. The title given to Simon was ‘Ethnarch’ – leader of the Jewish people. The book continues with describing the challenges and successes for the Jewish people, particularly the rule of Simon’s son John Hyrcanus. Hyrcanus expanded his territory through conquest, further stabalising his control of the Hasmonean Kingdom (remember: Hasmonean comes from the family name of Mattathias and his sons).                                                                                    

Josephus – Antiquities of the Jews

What happens next we largely know about from Josephus. Josephus wrote a number of works, the first which is called the Antiquities of the Jews. Antiquities follows the history of the Jewish people from Old Testament times through to the time of the Emperor Nero. The part of Antiquities that we are concerned with here focuses on the Hasmoneans.

Essentially, the Hasmoneans continue to rule over Judea, making more gains of land as the Hellenistic Seleucid kingdom crumbles. While there is in-fighting and civil conflict between members of the Hasmonean family for ultimate control they manage to maintain their kingdom in some form from the Maccabean revolt in 164BC through to 37BC. A Hasmonean named Aristobulus ‘places a diadem on his head’ and becomes not only prince and high priest, but takes the title as king. In doing so he becomes the first king of the Jewish people in over four hundred and eighty years since the exile.

A dispute as to who should become king after Aristobulus leads to the intervention of Rome, who was now the regional superpower. In the aftermath, Judea was incorporated into the Roman province of Syria along with the rest of the old Seleucid kingdom. However, a number of laws and proclamations are made by Roman officials regarding the Jews in their Empire. Due to cooperation with Roman interests, the Jews are given freedom of their worship, activities on the Sabbath, and exemption from conscription in the army.

In Anitquities Book 14, Chapter 8 Josephus discusses the rise of an aristocrat named Antipater. A capable military commander and civil ruler, Antipater was appointed by Caesar as Procurator (a regional administrator) over Judea, to organise the local councils and advise the Hasmonean Ethnarch. This effectively placed Antipater as the ruler of Judea. He placed his sons in significant positions of leadership. Josephus says: “seeing that Hyrcanus (the Hasmonean Ethnarch and High Priest) was of a slow and slothful temper, he made Phasaelus, his eldest son, governor of Jerusalem, and of the places that were about it, but committed Galilee to Herod, his next son, who was then a very young man, for he was but fifteen years of age.” (Antiquities, Book 14, Ch9 Section 2).

When Antipater dies, his son Herod is appointed as administrator. Herod marries the High Priest’s daughter, Mariamne. Herod’s marriage was politically convenient. While he was not Jewish by birth, he now felt that he could make a claim to be ruler of the Jews as the next Ethnarch when the current High Priest, Hyrcanus, died. Most Jews weren’t fooled, however, did not like Herod and supported his opponents.

Herod seeks assistance from his Roman contacts. The Romans decide that they need their own person in control of Judea, and so recognise Herod. Supplied with finances and soldiers, Herod takes power as king. Josephus concludes the story of the Hasmoneans like this:

And thus did the government of the Hasmoneans cease, a hundred twenty and six years after it was first set up. This family was a splendid and an illustrious one, both on account of the nobility of their stock, and of the dignity of the high priesthood, as also for the glorious actions their ancestors had performed for our nation; but these men lost the government by their dissensions one with another, and it came to Herod, the son of Antipater, who was of no more than a vulgar family, and of no eminent extraction, but one that was subject to other kings. And this is what history tells us was the end of the Hasmonean family (Antiquities, Book 14, Ch 16 Section 4).

Herod rules his kingdom with stern authority, using force to suppress any resistance and demonstrate the power of his rule to his Roman allies. He embarks on a range of massive building projects. Herod built the city of Caesarea Maritima and a number of fortresses, as well as pagan temples and other public buildings, unpopularly conscripting labour from among the population. He also made enormous gestures of friendship to allies using the wealth of his kingdom. At the same time, however, Herod also made gestures to pacify the population. He finances a complete reconstruction of Jerusalem’s temple, and builds a system of aqueducts to improve water supply.  

However, Herod remained warily paranoid of plots to remove him from power—both among the rebellious people, and his own family. A man with many wives over his life, he had Mariamne (the last Hasmonean princess), Aristobulus (her brother, the high priest) and both of his sons by Mariamne executed, to ensure that no one would look to the Hasmonean line to replace Herod. This paranoia and extreme defensiveness of Herod is not out of place with Jesus’ infancy in the gospel of Matthew, where the story tells that he executes all children under two because he fears a ‘new king’ being born among them. This story brings us to the time of Jesus. Josephus then tells us what happens to the rulers of Judah and its neighbouring regions as Jesus grows up.

Herod dies shortly after the birth of Jesus. The Roman Emperor decides not to leave the region in one man’s hands and decides that Herod’s territories will be divided between his remaining sons. He proclaims the eldest (Herod Archelaus) as Ethnarch over Judea and Samaria. Herod Antipas was given the title Tetrarch and would rule the region of Galilee, immediately to the north of Samaria, and also Perea (the modern country Jordan). To the north of Perea, a territory was given to another son, Herod Philip.

Archelaus proves to be an incompetent ruler. After fifteen years in office, he is ‘sacked’, exiled and sent off to retirement in Gaul (modern France). The Romans replace him with a procurator, or military governor. In Jesus’ time, the procurator is Pontius Pilate. Therefore the political situation in Jesus’ time is with Pilate as administrator of Judea and Samaria, while Herod Antipas rules over the district of Galilee and Perea. This is the world of the New Testament.